small giant
3/10/2008 12:00:00 PM
As has been shown in the previous chapter, the Biblical scriptures,
both New and Old Testaments, are unreliable sources and cannot,
therefore, be used as an authentic means of knowing the truth about
the man called Jesus Christ or about his mission and message.
However, a close examination of these scriptures in the light of
Qur’aanic verses will reveal some of the truths about Jesus that have
survived in the Bible.
A Messenger
Throughout the Qur‘aan, Jesus is identified fundamentally
as a Messenger of God. In Chapter as-Saff (61):6, God quotes Jesus as
follows:
} ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ??????
??????? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????
??????????? {
“And [remember] when Jesus, son of Mary, said: ‘O Children of Israel,
I am the messenger of Allaah sent to you, confirming the Torah [which
came] before me.”
There are many verses in the New Testament supporting the
messengership / prophethood of Jesus. The following are only a few: In
Matthew 21:11, the people of his time are recorded as referring to
Jesus as a prophet: “And the crowds said, ‘This is the prophet Jesus
of Nazareth of Galilee.’ ” In Mark, 6:4, it is stated that Jesus
referred to himself as a prophet: “And Jesus said to them, ‘A prophet
is not without honour, except in his own country, and among his own
kin, and in his own house.’ ” In the following verses, Jesus is
referred to as having been sent as a messenger is sent. In Matthew
10:40, Jesus was purported to have said: “He that receiveth you
receiveth me, and he that receiveth me receiveth him that sent me.”
In John 17:3, Jesus is also quoted as saying: “And this is life
eternal, that they might know thee the only true God, and Jesus
Christ, whom thou hast sent.” [1]
A Man
The Qur’aanic revelation not only affirms Jesus’
prophethood, but it also clearly denies Jesus’ divinity. In Chapter
al-Maa’idah, (5): 75, God points out that Jesus ate food, which is a
human act, obviously not befitting to God.
} ??? ?????????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????
???????? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????
??????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??????
??????????? {
“The Messiah, Son of Mary, was no more than a messenger and many
messengers passed away before him. His mother was exceedingly
truthful, and they both ate food. See how I have made the signs clear
for them, yet see how they are deluded.”
There are numerous accounts in the New Testament which also deny
Jesus’ divinity.
For example, in Matthew 19:17, Jesus responded to one who
addressed him as “O good master”, saying: “Why callest thou me good?
There is none good but one, that is God.” If he rejected being called
“good”,[2] and stated that only God is truly good, he clearly implies
that he is not God.
In John 14:28, Jesus was saying: “The Father is greater
than I.” By stating that the “Father” is greater than himself, Jesus
distinguishes himself from God. Also in John 20:17, Jesus told Mary
Magdalene to tell his followers: “I ascend unto my Father and your
Father; and to my God and your God.” Jesus’ reference to God as “my
Father and your Father” further emphasizes the distinction between
himself and God. Furthermore, by referring to God as “his God”, he
left no room for anyone to intelligently claim that he was God.
Even in some of the writings of Paul, which the Church has
taken to be sacred, Jesus is referred to as a “man”, distinct and
different from God. In 1st Timothy, 2:5, Paul writes: “For there is
one God, and one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus.”
There are also verses in the Qur‘aan which confirm Prophet
Muhammad’s humanity, in order to prevent his followers from elevating
him to a divine or semi-divine status, as was done to Prophet Jesus.
For example, in Chapter al-Kahf (18):110, Allaah instructs the Prophet
Muhammad (e) to inform all who hear his message:
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?????????? ????? ??????? {
“Say: ‘Indeed, I am only a man like you to whom it has been revealed
that your God is only one God.’ ”
In Chapter al-A‘raaf (7):187, Allaah also directed Prophet Muhammad
(e) to acknowledge that the time of the Judgement is known only to
God.
} ????????????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ???? ????????
????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????????? ??????????? ?????? ???? {
“They ask you about the Final Hour: 'When will its apointed time be?’
Say: ‘Knowledge of it is with my Lord. None can reveal its time
besides Him.’ ”
In the Gospel according to Mark 13:31-32, Jesus is also reported to
have denied having knowledge of when the final hour of this world
would be, saying: “Heaven and the earth shall pass away but my word
shall not pass away, but of that day or hour no man knoweth, neither
the angels in the heaven nor the Son but the Father.” One of the
attributes of God is omniscience, knowledge of all things. Therefore,
his denial of knowledge of the Day of Judgement is also a denial of
divinity, for one who does not know the time of the final hour cannot
possibly be God.[3]
An Immaculate Conception
The Qur‘aan confirms the Biblical story of Jesus’ virgin
birth. However, in the Qur‘aanic account of Jesus’ birth, Mary was an
unmarried maiden whose life was dedicated to the worship of God by her
mother. While she was worshipping in a place of religious seclusion,
angels came and informed her of her impending pregnancy.
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?????????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????????
??? ????????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ??????????????{
“When the angels said: ‘O Mary, indeed Allaah gives you glad tidings
of a Word from Him, whose name will be the Messiah, Jesus the son of
Mary. He will be honored in this world and the next and will be of
those close to Allaah.’ ” Qur’aan, (3):45
} ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ??????
????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ???????
?????????? ??????? ???? ???? ????????? {
“She said: ‘O my Lord, how can I have a son when no man has touched
me?’ He said: ‘Even so—Allaah creates what He wishes. When He decrees
something, He only has to say to it: “Be!” and it is.’ ” Qur’aan, (3):
47
However, the Qur’aan clarifies that Jesus’ virgin birth did not change
the state of his humanity. His creation was like the creation of
Aadam, who had neither father nor mother.
} ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????
??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????????? {
“Surely, the example of Jesus, in Allaah’s sight, is like that of
Aadam. He created him from dust and said: ‘Be!’ and he was.” Qur’aan,
(3):59
The Miracles
The Qur‘aanic account of Jesus’ ministry confirms most[4] of his
miracles mentioned in the Bible and identifies some not mentioned in
the Bible. For example, the Qur‘aan informs that Jesus was a messenger
of God from his birth, and his first miracle was speaking as a child
in the cradle. After Mary had given birth to Jesus, people accused
her of fornication. Instead of responding to their accusations, she
pointed to her newly born child:
} ??????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???? ????? ???
????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????????
??????????? ???????? {
“[When] she pointed to him, they asked, ‘How can we talk to a child in
the cradle?’ He [Jesus] said: ‘Indeed, I am a servant of Allaah. He
gave me the scripture and made me a prophet.’ ”
Qur’aan, (19):29-30
Among his other miracles of bringing the dead back to life, healing
lepers, and making the blind see, the Qur‘aan records another miracle
not mentioned in the Bible. Prophet Jesus fashioned birds out of
clay, blew on them and they flew away, living birds. But the point
which is emphasized throughout the Qur‘aan is that whenever Jesus
performed a miracle, he informed the people that it was by God’s
permission. He made it clear to his followers that he was not doing
the miracles by himself, in the same way that the earlier Prophets
made it clear to those around them.
Unfortunately, those who claim divinity for Jesus, usually
hold up his miracles as evidence. However, other prophets were
recorded to have done the same or similar miracles in the Old
Testament.
Jesus fed 5,000 people with five loaves of bread and two fishes.
Elisha fed 100 people with twenty barley loaves and a few ears of
corn (II Kings 4:44)
Jesus healed lepers.
Elisha cured Naaman the leper (II Kings 5:14).
Jesus caused the blind to see.
Elisha caused the blind to see (II Kings 6:17&20).
Jesus raised the dead.
Elijah did the same (I Kings 17:22). So did Elisha (II Kings 4:34).
Even Elisha’s bones could restore the dead (II Kings 13:21).
Jesus walked on water.
Moses and his people crossed the dead sea (Exodus 14:22).
There are also texts in the New Testament which confirm
that Jesus did not act on his own. Jesus is quoted in John 5:30, as
saying: “I can of mine own self do nothing...” and in Luke 11:20, as
saying, “But if I with the finger of God cast out devils, no doubt the
Kingdom of God is come upon you.” In Acts 2:22, Paul writes: “Men of
Israel, hear these words: Jesus of Nazareth, a man attested to you by
God with mighty works and wonders and signs which God did through him
in your midst, as you yourselves know...”
“Evidence” for Jesus’ Divinity
There are a number of verses which have been interpreted
by the Catholic and Protestant Churches as evidence for the Divinity
of Jesus Christ. However, on close examination of these verses, it
becomes evident that, either their wordings are ambiguous, leaving
them open to a number of different interpretations, or they are
additions not found in the early manuscripts of the Bible. The
following are some of the most commonly quoted arguments.
1. The Alpha and Omega
In the Book of Revelation 1, verse 8, it is implied that
Jesus said the following about himself: “I am Alpha and Omega, the
beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and
which is to come, the Almighty.” These are the attributes of God.
Consequently, Jesus, according to early Christians, is here claiming
divinity. However, the above-mentioned wording is according to the
King James Version. In the Revised Standard Version, biblical
scholars corrected the translation and wrote: “I am the Alpha and the
Omega,” says the Lord God, who is and who was and who is to come, the
Almighty.” A correction was also made in the New American Bible
produced by Catholics. The translation of that verse has been amended
to put it in its correct context as follows: “The Lord God says: ‘I am
the Alpha and the Omega, the one who is and who was, and who is to
come, the Almighty.’ ” With these corrections, it becomes evident that
this was a statement of God and not a statement of Prophet Jesus.
2. The Pre-existence of Christ
Another verse commonly used to support the divinity of
Jesus is John 8:58: “Jesus said unto them, ‘Verily, verily, I say unto
you, Before Abraham was, I am.’ ” This verse is taken to imply that
Jesus existed prior to his appearance on earth. The conclusion drawn
from it is that Jesus must be God, since his existence predates his
birth on earth. However, the concept of the pre-existence of the
prophets, and of man in general, exists in both the Old Testament, as
well as in the Qur‘aan. Jeremiah described himself in The Book of
Jeremiah 1:4-5 as follows: “ 5Now the word of the Lord came to me
saying, 5 ‘Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you
were born I consecrated you; I appointed you a prophet to the
nations.’ ”
Prophet Solomon is reported in Proverbs 8:23-27, to have
said, “23Ages ago I was set up at the first, before the beginning of
the earth. 24When there were no depths I was brought forth, when there
were no springs abounding with water, 25Before the mountains had been
shaped, before the hills, I was brought forth; 26before he had made
the earth with its fields, or the first of the dust of the world
27When he established the heavens, I was there.”
According to Job 38:4 and 21, God addresses Prophet Job as
follows: “4Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth?
Tell me, if you have understanding... 21You Know, for you were born
then, and the number of your days is great!”
In the Qur‘aan, Chapter al-A‘raaf, (7):172, God informed
that man existed in the spiritual form before the creation of the
physical world.
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??????? ????? ????????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ??????
?????? ???? ????? ?????????? {
“When your Lord gathered all of Aadam’s descendants [before creation]
and made them bear witness for themselves, saying: ‘Am I not your
Lord?’ They all replied: Yes indeed, we bear witness. [That was] so
you could not say on the Day of Judgement: ‘We were unaware of this.’
”
Consequently, Prophet Jesus’ statement, “Before Abraham was, I am,”
cannot be used as evidence of his divinity. Within the context of
John 8:54-58, Jesus is purported to have spoken about God’s knowledge
of His prophets, which predates the creation of this world.
3. The Son of God
Another of the evidences used for Jesus’ divinity is the application
of the title “Son of God” to Jesus. However, there are numerous
places in the Old Testament where this title has been given to
others.
God called Israel (Prophet Jacob) His “son” when He instructed Prophet
Moses to go to Pharaoh in Exodus 4:22-23, “22 And you shall say to
Pharaoh, ‘Thus says the Lord, “Israel is my first-born son, 23and I
say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me.’ ” [5]
In 2nd Samuel 8:13-14, God calls Prophet Solomon His son,
“13 He [Solomon] shall build a house for my name, and I will establish
the throne of his kingdom for ever. 14I will be his father, and he
shall be my son.”
God promised to make Prophet David His son in Psalms
89:26-27: “26 He shall cry unto me, ‘Thou art my father, my God, and
the rock of my salvation,’ 27Also I will make him my first-born,
higher than the kings of the earth.”[6]
Angels are referred to as “sons of God” in The Book of Job
1:6, “Now there was a day when the sons of God came to present
themselves before the Lord, and Satan also came among them.”[7]
In the New Testament, there are many references to “sons
of God” other than Jesus. For example, when the author of the Gospel
according to Luke listed Jesus’ ancestors back to Adam, he wrote: “The
son of Enos, the son of Seth, the son of Adam, the son of God.”[8]
Some claim that what is unique in the case of Jesus, is
that he is the only begotten[9] Son of God, while the others are
merely “sons of God”. However, God is recorded as saying to Prophet
David, in Psalms 2:7, “I will tell the decree of the Lord: He said to
me, ‘You are my son, today I have begotten you.’ ”
It should also be noted that nowhere in the Gospels does
Jesus actually call himself “Son of God”.[10] Instead, he is recorded
to have repeatedly called himself “Son of man” (e.g. Luke 9:22)
innumerable times. And in Luke 4:41, he actually rejected being called
“Son of God”: “And demons also came out of many, crying, ‘You are the
Son of God!’ But he rebuked them, and would not allow them to speak,
because they knew that he was the Christ.”
Since the Hebrews believed that God is One, and had
neither wife nor children in any literal sense, it is obvious that the
expression “son of God” merely meant to them “Servant of God”; one
who, because of his faithful service, was close and dear to God, as a
son is to a father. Christians who came from a Greek or Roman
background, later misused this term. In their heritage, “son of God”
signified an incarnation of a god or someone born of a physical union
between male and female gods.[11] When the Church cast aside its
Hebrew foundations, it adopted the pagan concept of “son of God”,
which was entirely different from the Hebrew usage.[12]
Consequently, the use of the term “son of God” should only
be understood from the Semitic symbolic sense of a “servant of God”,
and not in the pagan sense of a literal offspring of God. In the four
Gospels, Jesus is recorded as saying: “Blessed are the peace-makers;
they will be called sons of God.”[13]
Likewise, Jesus’ use of the term abba, “dear father”,
should be understood similarly. There is a dispute among New Testament
scholars as to precisely what abba meant in Jesus’ time and also as to
how widely it was in use by other Jewish sects of that era.
James Barr has recently argued forcefully that it did not
have the specially intimate sense that has so often been attributed to
it, but that it simply meant “father”.[14] To think of God as “our
heavenly Father” was by no means new, for in the Lord’s prayer he is
reported to have taught his disciples to address God in this same
familiar way.
4. One with God
Those who claim that Jesus was God, hold that he was not a separate
god, but one and the same God incarnate. They draw support for this
belief from verse 30 of the Gospel according to John, chapter 10, in
which Jesus is reported to have said, “I and the Father are one.” Out
of context, this verse does imply Jesus’ divinity. However, when the
Jews accused him of claiming divinity, based on that statement, “Jesus
answered them, ‘Is it not written in your law, “I said, Ye are
gods?”[15]-[16] He clarified for them, with a scriptural example well
known to them, that he was using the metaphorical language of the
prophets which should not be interpreted as ascribing divinity to
himself or to other human beings.
Further evidence is drawn from verses ten and eleven of
the Gospel according to John, chapter 14, where people asked Jesus to
show them the Father, and he was supposed to have said: “Do you not
believe that I am in the Father and the Father in me? The words that
I say to you I do not speak on my own authority; but the Father who
dwells in me does his works. 11Believe me that I am in the Father and
the Father in me; or else believe me for the sake of the works
themselves.”
These phrases would imply Jesus’ divinity, if the
remainder of the same Gospel is ignored. However, nine verses later,
in John 14:20, Jesus is also recorded as saying to his disciples, “In
that day you will know that I am in my Father, and you in me, and I in
you.” Thus, if Jesus’ statement “I am in the Father and the Father is
in me” means that he is God, then so were his disciples. This
symbolic statement means oneness of purpose and not oneness of
essence. The symbolic interpretation is further emphasized in John
17:20-21, wherein Jesus said, “20 I do not pray for these only, but
also for those who believe in me through their word, 21that they may
all be one; even as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they
also may be in us, so that the world may believe that thou has sent
me.”[17]
5. “He Accepted Worship”
It is argued that since Jesus is reported to have accepted the worship
of some of his followers, he must have been God. However, a closer
examination of the texts indicates both a case of dubious translation,
as well as misinterpretation. The term “worship” can be found in the
King James Version and The Revised Standard Version accounts of the
three wise men who came from the east. They were reported in Matthew
2:2, to have said, “Where is the baby born to be the king of the Jews?
We saw his star when it came up in the east, and we have come to
worship him.”[18] However, in The New American Bible (Catholic Press,
1970), the text reads: “Where is the newborn king of the Jews? We
observed his star at its rising and have come to pay him
homage.”
In The Revised Standard Version, John 9:37-38,: “37 Jesus
said to him, ‘You have seen him, and it is he who speaks to you.’ 38He
said, ‘Lord, I believe’; and he worshipped him.”[19] However, in The
American Bible, the scholarly translators added a footnote which
read:
9:38 This verse, omitted in important MSS [manuscripts],
may be an addition for a baptismal liturgy.
This verse is not found in important ancient manuscripts containing
this Gospel. It is probably a later addition made by Church scribes
for use in baptismal services.
Furthermore, as a renowned authority on the Bible and its
original language, George M. Lamsa, explained, “The Aramaic word
sagad, worship, also means to bend or to kneel down. Easterners in
greeting each other generally bowed the head or bent down.[20] ...‘He
worshipped him’ does not imply that he worshipped Jesus as one
worshipped God. Such an act would have been regarded as sacrilegious
and a breach of the First Commandment in the eyes of the Jews, and the
man might have been stoned. But he knelt before him in token of homage
and gratitude.”[21]
The final scripture, the Qur’aan, clarifies the issue of
worshipping or not worshipping Jesus, by quoting a conversation which
will take place between Jesus and God on the Day of Judgement. Allaah
states in Chapter al-Maa’idah, (5):116-7:
} ?????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????
????????? ???????????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ????? ????? ... ???
?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????????? ???? ???? ?????????? ????? ????
??????????? ... {
“When Allaah will say: ‘O Jesus, son of Mary, did you tell people:
“Worship me and my mother as two gods instead of Allaah?” ’...[Jesus
will say]: ‘I only told them what You commanded me to say: “Worship
Allaah, my Lord and your Lord ...” ”
6. “In the beginning was the Word”
Perhaps the most commonly quoted ‘evidence’ for Jesus’ divinity is
John 1:1&14, “1 In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with
God, and the Word was God....14And the Word became flesh and dwelt
among us, full of grace and truth...” However, these statements were
not made by Jesus Christ, nor were they attributed to him by the
author of the Gospel according to John. Consequently, these verses do
not constitute evidence for Jesus’ divinity, especially considering
the doubts held by Christian scholars about the Fourth Gospel. The
Bible scholars who authored The Five Gospels said: “The two pictures
painted by John and the synoptic gospels (i.e., the Gospels of
Matthew, Mark & Luke) cannot both be historically accurate.[22]...The
words attributed to Jesus in the Fourth Gospel are the creation of the
evangelist for the most part, and reflect the developed language of
John’s Christian community.”[23]
The Greek term used by the anonymous author of the Fourth
Gospel for “word” is logos.[24] In doing so, the author identifies
Jesus with the pagan logos of Greek philosophy, who was the divine
reason implicit in the cosmos, ordering it and giving it form and
meaning.[25]
The idea of the logos in Greek thought may be traced back
at least to the 6th-century-BC philosopher, Heracleitus, who proposed
that there was a logos in the cosmic process analogous to the
reasoning power in man. Later, the Stoics[90] defined the logos as an
active, rational and spiritual principle that permeated all reality.
[27] The Greek-speaking Jewish philosopher, Judaeus Philo of
Alexandria (15 BC - 45 CE), taught that the logos was the intermediary
between God and the cosmos, being both the agent between God and the
cosmos, being both the agent of creation and the agent through which
the human mind can comprehend God.[28] The writings of Philo were
preserved and cherished by the Church, and provided the inspiration
for a sophisticated Christian philosophical theology. He departed from
Platonic thought regarding the logos (Word) and called it “the first-
begotten Son of God”.[29]
The identification of Jesus with the logos, was further
developed in the early Church as a result of attempts made by early
Christian theologians and apologists to express the Christian faith in
terms that would be intelligible to the Hellenistic world. Moreover,
it was to impress their hearers with the view that Christianity was
superior to, or heir to, all that was best in pagan philosophy. Thus,
in their apologies and polemical works, the early Christian Fathers
stated that Christ was the preexistent logos.[30]
The Greek word for ‘God’ used in the phrase “and the Word
was with God,” is the definite form hotheos, meaning ‘The God’.
However, in the second phrase “and the Word was God”, the Greek word
used for ‘God’ is the indefinite form tontheos, which means ‘a god’.
[31] Consequently, John 1:1, should more accurately be translated, “In
the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word
was a god.” Therefore, if the Word was a ‘god’ in the literal sense,
it would mean that there were two Gods and not one. However, in
Biblical language, the term ‘god’ is used metaphorically to indicate
power. For example, Paul referred to the devil as “god” in 2nd
Corinthians 4:4, “In their case the god of this world has blinded the
minds of the unbelievers, to keep them from seeing the light of the
gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the likeness of God.” Moses is
also referred to as “god” in Exodus 7:1, “And the Lord said unto
Moses, ‘See, I have made thee a god to Pharaoh; and Aaron thy brother
shall be thy prophet.”[32]
Ancient Thoughts
There was serious conflict between the Pauline and the
Jerusalem interpretations of Jesus and his message. This conflict,
after simmering for years, finally led to a complete break, by which
the Pauline Christian Church was founded, comprising, in effect, a new
religion, separated from Judaism. On the other hand, the Jerusalem
Nazarenes did not sever their links with Judaism, but regarded
themselves essentially as practicing Jews, loyal to the Torah, who
also believed in Jesus, a human Messiah figure.[33]
When the Jewish insurrection was crushed by the Romans and
their Temple destroyed in 70 CE, the Jewish Christians were scattered,
and their power and influence as the Mother Church and center of the
Jesus movement was ended.[34] The Pauline Christian movement, which up
until 66 CE had been struggling to survive against the strong
disapproval of Jerusalem, now began to make headway.
The Jerusalem Church, under the leadership of James,
originally known as Nazarenes, later came to be known by the
derogatory nickname Ebionites (Hebrew evyonium, “poor men”), which
some Nazarenes adopted with pride as a reminder of Jesus’ saying,
“Blessed are the poor.” After the ascendency of Graeco-Roman Church,
the Nazarenes became despised as heretics, due to their rejection of
the doctrines of Paul.[35]
According to the ancient Church historian, Irenaeus (c.
185 CE), the Ebionites believed in one God, the Creator, taught that
Jesus was the Messiah, used only the Gospel According to Matthew, and
rejected Paul as an apostate from the Jewish Law.[36]
Ebionites were known to still exist in the 4th century.
Some had left Palestine and settled in Transjordan and Syria and were
later known to be in Asia Minor, Egypt and Rome.[37]
Monarchianism,[38] a Gentile Christian movement which
developed during the 2nd and 3rd centuries continued to represent the
“extreme” monotheistic view of the Ebionites. It held that Christ was
a man, miraculously conceived, but was only ‘Son of God’ due to being
filled with divine wisdom and power. This view was taught at Rome
about the end of the 2nd century by Theodotus, who was excommunicated
by Pope Victor, and taught somewhat later by Artemon, who was
excommunicated by Pope Zephyrinus. About 260 CE it was again taught by
Paul of Samosata,[39] the bishop of Antioch in Syria, who openly
preached that Jesus was a man through whom God spoke his Word (Logos),
and he vigorously affirmed the absolute unity of God.
Between 263 and 268 at least three church councils were
held at Antioch to debate Paul’s orthodoxy. The third condemned his
doctrine and deposed him. However, Paul enjoyed the patronage of
Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, to whom Antioch was then subject, and it
was not until 272 when the emperor Aurelian defeated Zenobia that the
actual deposition was carried out.[40]
In the late third and early fourth centuries, Arius (b. c.
250, Libya - d. 336 CE), a presbyter of Alexandria, Egypt, also taught
the finite nature of Christ and the absolute oneness of God, which
attracted a large following, until he was declared a heretic by the
council of Nicaea in May 325 CE. During the council, he refused to
sign the formula of faith stating that Christ was of the same divine
nature as God. However, influential support from colleagues in Asia
Minor and from Constantia, the emperor Constantine’s daughter,
succeeded in effecting Arius’ return from exile and his readmission
into the church.[41] The movement which he was supposed to have begun,
but which was in fact an extension of Jerusalem Nazarene/Jewish
Christian belief, came to be known as Arianism and constituted the
greatest internal threat to the Pauline Christian orthodoxy’s belief
in Jesus’ divinity.
From 337 to 350 CE, the emperor in the West, Constans, was
sympathetic to the orthodox Christians, and Constantius II,
sympathetic to the Arians, was Emperor in the East. Arian influence
was so great that at a church council held in Antioch (341 CE), an
affirmation of faith was issued which omitted the clause that Jesus
had the “same divine nature as God”. In 350 CE Constantius II became
sole ruler of the empire, and under his leadership the Nicene party
(orthodox Christians) was largely crushed. After Constantius the
Second’s death in 361 CE, the orthodox Christian majority in the West
consolidated its position. However, the defense of absolute monotheism
and the suppression of orthodox Christian trinitarian beliefs
continued in the East under the Arian emperor Valens (364-383 CE). It
was not until Emperor Theodosius I (379-395 CE) took up the defense of
orthodoxy that Arianism was finally crushed. The unitarian beliefs of
Arius, however, continued among some of the Germanic tribes up until
the end of the 7th century.[42]
Modern Thoughts
Today, there are many modern scholars in Christianity who
hold that Jesus Christ was not God. In 1977, a group of seven biblical
scholars, including leading Anglican theologians and other New
Testament scholars, published a book called The Myth of God Incarnate,
which caused a great uproar in the General Synod of the Church of
England. In the preface, the editor, John Hick, wrote the following:
“The writers of this book are convinced that another major theological
development is called for in this last part of the twentieth century.
The need arises from growing knowledge of Christian origins, and
involves a recognition that Jesus was (as he is presented in Acts
2.21) ‘a man approved by God’ for a special role within the divine
purpose, and that the later conception of him as God incarnate, the
Second Person of the Holy Trinity living a human life, is a
mythological or poetic way of expressing his significance for
us.”[43]
There is a broad agreement among New Testament scholars
that the historical Jesus did not make the claim to deity that later
Christian thought was to make for him; he did not understand himself
to be God, or God the Son, incarnate [in the flesh].[44] The late
Archbishop Michael Ramsey, who was himself a New Testament scholar,
wrote that “Jesus did not claim deity for himself.”[45] His
contemporary, the New Testament scholar C.F.D. Moule, said that, “Any
case for a ‘high’ Christology that depended on the authenticity of the
alleged claims of Jesus about himself, especially in the Fourth
Gospel, would indeed be precarious.”[46]
In a major study of the origins of the doctrine of the
incarnation, James Dunn, who affirms orthodox Christology, concludes
that “there was no real evidence in the earliest Jesus tradition of
what could fairly be called a consciousness of divinity.”[47] Again,
Brian Hebblethwaite, a staunch upholder of the traditional Nicene-
Calcedonian Christology, acknowledges that “it is no longer possible
to defend the divinity of Jesus by reference to the claims of
Jesus.”[48] Hebblethwaite and Dunn, and other scholars like them who
still believe in Jesus’ divinity, argue instead that Jesus did not
know he was God incarnate. This only became known after his
resurrection.
Most famous among the Church of England bishops, who doubt
Jesus’ divinity, is the outspoken Reverend Professor David Jenkins,
the Bishop of Durham in England, who openly states that Jesus was not
God. [49]
The following article, which appeared in The Daily News
some years ago, clearly indicates the degree to which there are doubts
among the clergy regarding Jesus’ divinity.
Shock survey
Of Anglican bishops
LONDON: More than half of England’s Anglican bishops say Christians
are not obliged to believe that Jesus Christ was God, according to a
survey published today.
The poll of 31 of England’s 39 bishops shows that many of them think
that Christ’s miracles, the virgin birth and the resurrection might
not have happened exactly as described in the Bible.
Only 11 of the bishops insisted that Christians must regard Christ
as both God and man, while 19 said it was sufficient to regard Jesus
as “God’s supreme agent”. One declined to give a definite opinion.
The poll was carried out by London Weekend Television’s weekly
religion show, Credo.
“DAILY NEWS” 25/6/84
CHAPTER THREE:
THE MESSAGE
The second issue, ‘The Message of Jesus’, is perhaps the most
important point to consider. For, if Jesus was not God incarnate, but
a prophet of God, the message which he brought from God is the essence
of his mission.
Submission
The foundation of Jesus’ message was submission to the
will of God, because that is the foundation of the religion which God
prescribed for man since the beginning of time. God says in Chapter
Aal ‘Imraan, the third chapter of the Qur‘aan, verse 19:
} ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???????????? {
“Truly, the religion in the sight of Allaah is Islaam [submission].”
In Arabic, submission to God’s will is expressed by the word ‘Islaam’.
In the Gospel according to Matthew 7:22, Jesus is quoted as saying:
“Not everyone who says to me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ shall enter the kingdom of
heaven, but he who does the will of my Father in heaven.” In this
statement, Jesus places emphasis on “the will of the Father”,
submission of the human will to the will of God. In John 5:30, it is
narrated that Jesus also said: “I can do nothing on my own authority;
as I hear, I judge; and my judgment is just, because I seek not my own
will but the will of him who sent me.”
The Law
The “will of God” is contained in the divinely revealed
laws which the prophets taught their followers. Consequently,
obedience to divine law is the foundation of worship. The Qur’aan
affirms the need for obedience to the divinely revealed laws in
chapter al-Maa’idah, verse 44.
} ?????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????
????????????? ????????? ?????????? ... ?????? ???? ???????? ?????
???????? ????? ???????????? ???? ????????????? {
“Indeed, I did reveal the Torah in which was guidance and light, by
which the prophets, who submitted to God’s will, judged (the Jews) ...
and whoever does not judge by what Allaah has revealed is a
disbeliever,”
Jesus was also reported in the Gospel according to Matthew 19:16-17,
to have made obedience to the divine laws the key to paradise: “16 Now
behold, one came and said to him,“Good teacher, what good thing shall
I do that I may have eternal life?” 17So he said to him, “Why do you
call me good? No one is good but One, that is, God. But if you want
to enter into life, keep the commandments.”[50] Also in Matthew 5:19,
Jesus Christ was reported to have insisted on strict obedience to the
commandments saying, “Whoever therefore breaks one of the least of
these commandments, and teaches men so, shall be called least in the
kingdom of heaven; but whoever does and teaches them, he shall be
called great in the kingdom of heaven.”
Divine law represents guidance for humankind in all walks of life. It
defines right and wrong for them and offers human beings a complete
system governing all of their affairs. The Creator alone knows best
what is beneficial for His creation and what is not. Thus, the divine
laws command and prohibit various acts and substances to protect the
human spirit, the human body, and human society from harm. In order
for human beings to fulfil their potential by living righteous lives,
they need to worship God through obedience to His commandments.[51]
This was the religion conveyed in the message of Jesus;
submission to the will of the one true God by obedience to His
commandments. Jesus stressed to his followers that his mission did
not cancel the laws received by Prophet Moses. As the prophets who
came after Moses maintained the law, so did Jesus. Chapter al-
Maa’idah, verse 46 of the Qur’aan indicates that Jesus confirmed the
Laws of the Torah in his message.
} ???????????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??????????
????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ???????????? ????????????
????? ????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????
??????????? {
“And in their footsteps, I sent Jesus, son of Mary, confirming the
Torah that had come before him, and I gave him the Gospel, in which
was guidance and light and confirmation of the Torah that had come
before it,”
In Matthew 5:17-18, Jesus stated: “17 Think not that I have come to
abolish the law and the [way of] the prophets; I have come not to
abolish them but to fulfil them. 18For, I say to you, till heaven and
earth pass away, not an iota, not a dot, will pass from the law until
all is accomplished.” However, Paul, who claimed to be a disciple of
Jesus, systematically cancelled the laws. In his letter to the
Romans, chapter 7:6, he stated, “But now we are discharged from the
law, dead to that which held us captive, so that we serve not under
the old written code but in the new life of the Spirit.”
Unitarianism
Jesus came as a prophet calling people to worship God
alone, as the prophets before him did. God says in chapter an-Nahl
(16):36, of the Qur‘aan:
}???????? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ?????
?????????????? ???????????{
“Surely, I[52] have sent to every nation a messenger (saying):
‘Worship Allaah and avoid false gods.”
In Luke 3:8, the Devil asks Jesus to worship him,
promising him the authority and glory of all of the kingdoms of this
world, “And Jesus answered him, ‘It is written, You shall worship the
Lord your God, and him only shall you serve.’ ” Thus, the essence of
the message of Jesus was that only God deserves to be worshipped and
that the worship of anyone or anything besides God or along with God
is false. Jesus not only called people to this message but he also
practically demonstrated it for them by bowing down in prayer and
worshipping God himself. In Mark 14:32, it states: “And they went to a
place which was called Gethsemane; and he [Jesus] said to his
disciples, ‘Sit here, while I pray.’ ” And in Luke 5:16, “But he
withdrew to the wilderness and prayed.”
Jesus called them to worship the one true God who is
unique in His qualities. God does not have the attributes of His
creation, nor does any creature share any of His attributes. In
Matthew 19:16-17, when the man called Prophet Jesus ‘good’, saying,
“Good teacher, what good thing shall I do that I may have eternal
life?” Prophet Jesus replied, “Why do you call me good? No one is
good but One, that is, God.” He denied the attribution of ‘infinite
goodness’ or ‘perfect goodness’ to himself, and affirmed that this
attribute belongs to Allaah alone.
The vast majority of Christians today pray to Jesus,
claiming that he is God. The Philosophers among them claim that they
are not worshipping Jesus the man, but God who was manifest in Jesus
the man. This is also the rationale of pagans who bow down in worship
to idols. When a pagan philosopher is asked why he worships an idol
which was made by human hands, he replies that he is not really
worshipping the idol. Furthermore, he may claim that the idol is only
a focal point for the presence of God, and thereby claim to be
worshipping God who is manifest in the idol, and not the physical idol
itself. There is little or no difference between that explanation and
the answer given by Christians for worshipping Jesus. The origin of
this deviation lies in the false belief that God is present in His
creation. Such a belief justifies the worship of God’s creation.
Jesus’ message, which urged mankind to worship one God alone, became
distorted after his departure. Later followers, beginning with Paul,
turned that pure and simple message into a complicated trinitarian
philosophy which justified the worship of Jesus, and then the worship
of Jesus’ mother, Mary,[53] the angels[54] and the saints. Catholics
have a long list of saints to whom they turn in times of need. If
something is lost, Saint Anthony of Thebes is prayed to in order to
help find it.[55] St. Jude Thaddaeus is the patron saint of the
impossible and is prayed to for intercession in incurable illnesses,
unlikely marriages or the like. [56] The patron saint of travelers was
Saint Christopher, to whom travelers used to pray for protection up
until 1969, when he was officially struck off the list of saints by
papal decree, after it was confirmed that he was fictitious. [57]
Although he was officially crossed off the list of saints, there are
many Catholics around the world today who are still praying to St.
Christopher.
Worshipping ‘saints’ contradicts and corrupts the worship
of One God; and it is in vain, because neither the living nor the dead
can answer the prayers of mankind. The worship of God should not be
shared with His creation in any way, shape or form. In this regard,
Allaah said the following in Chapter al-A ‘raaf (7):194:
} ????? ????????? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ????????????? {
“Surely, those whom you call on in prayer besides Allaah are slaves
like yourselves.”
This was the message of Jesus Christ and all the prophets before him.
It was also the message of the last prophet, Muhammad—may peace and
blessings be upon all of them. Thus, if a Muslim or a person who
calls himself a Muslim prays to a saint, he has stepped out of the
bounds of Islaam. Islaam is not merely a belief, wherein one is only
required to state that he or she believes that there is no God worthy
of worship but Allaah and that Muhammad was the last of the
messengers, in order to attain paradise. This declaration of faith
allows one who declares it to enter the doors of Islaam, but there are
many acts which may contradict this declaration and expel the doer
from Islaam as quickly as he or she came in. The most serious of those
acts is praying to other than God.
Muslim not “Mohammedan”
Since Jesus’ religion, and that of all of the earlier prophets, was
the religion of submission to God, known in Arabic as Islaam, his true
followers should be called submitters to God, known in Arabic as
Muslims. In Islaam, prayer is considered an act of worship. Prophet
Muhammad (e) was reported to have said, “Supplication is an act of
worship.”[58] Consequently, Muslims do not accept being called
Mohammedans, as followers of Christ are called Christians and
followers of Buddha are called Buddhists. Christians worship Christ
and Buddhists worship Buddha. The term Mohammedans implies that
Muslims worship Muhammad, which is not the case at all. In the
Qur‘aan, God chose the name Muslim for all who truly follow the
prophets. The name Muslim in Arabic means “one who submits to the will
of God.”
} ???? ?????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? {
“...It is He who named you Muslims both before and in this [scripture,
the Qur’aan].” Qur’aan, (22):78
Consequently, the essence of Jesus’ message was that man
should worship God alone. He should not be worshipped through his
creation in any way. Consequently, His image cannot be painted,
carved or drawn. He is beyond human comprehension.
Images
Jesus did not condone the pagan practice of making images
of God. He upheld the prohibition mentioned in the Torah, Exodus 20
verse 4: “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any
likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth
beneath, or that is in the water under the earth.” Consequently, the
use of religious images, called icons,[59] was firmly opposed by the
early generation of Christian scholars. However, in time, the Greek
and Roman tradition of image-making and portraying God in human form
eventually won out. The prohibition is to prevent the eventual
deterioration of worship of God into the worship of His creation. Once
a human being makes a picture in his or her mind of God, the person
is, in fact, trying to make God like His creation, because the human
mind can only picture the things which it has seen, and God can not be
seen in this life.
Christians with a tradition of worshipping through images
often question how God can be worshipped without visualizing Him. God
should be worshipped based on the knowledge of His attributes which He
revealed in authentic scripture. For example, Allaah describes Himself
in the Qur’aan as being All-Merciful, so His worshippers should
reflect on God’s many mercies and give thanks to God for them. They
should also contemplate on the nature of His mercy to them and show
mercy to other human beings. Likewise, Allaah refers to Himself as
being Oft-Forgiving, so His worshippers should turn to Him in
repentance and not give up hope when they commit sins. They should
also appreciate God’s forgiveness by being forgiving to other human
beings.
Prophesy
Part of Prophet Jesus’ message was to inform his followers
of the prophet who would come after him. As John the Baptist heralded
the coming of Jesus Christ, Jesus in turn heralded the coming of the
last of the prophets of God, Muhammad. In the Qur’aan, Chapter as-Saff
(61):6, God quotes Jesus’ prophesy about Muhammad (e).
} ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????????? ?????
??????? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????
??????????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????
???????? .. {
“(Remember) when Jesus, son of Mary, said, ‘O Children of Israel, I am
the Messenger of Allaah sent to you, confirming the Torah before me,
and giving glad tidings of a Messenger coming after me, whose name
will be Ahmad.[60]”
There are also some references in the Gospels which seem to refer to
the coming of Prophet Muhammad—may God’s peace and blessings be on all
the prophets. In the Gospel according to John 14:16, Jesus is quoted
as saying, “And I will pray the Father, and he will give you another
Counselor,[61] to be with you for ever.”
Christian laymen usually interpret the “Counselor” mentioned in John
14:16 as the Holy Spirit.[62] However, the phrase “another Counselor”
implies that it will be someone else like Jesus and not the Holy
Spirit,[63] especially considering John 16:7, in which Jesus is
reported to have said, “Nevertheless I tell you the truth: it is to
your advantage that I go away, for if I do not go away, the Counselor
will not come to you; but if I go, I will send him to you.” The term
“Counselor” could not be referring to the Holy Spirit here, because—
according to the Gospels—the Holy Spirit was already present in the
world prior to Jesus’ birth,[64] as well as during his ministry.[65]
This verse implies that the “Counselor” had not already come.
Jesus’ declaration that the prophet-counselor “will be
with you forever,” could be interpreted to mean that there would be no
need for additional prophets to succeed this Counselor. He would be
the last of the Prophets of God, whose message would be preserved
until the end of the world.[66]
Jesus’ foretelling the coming of Muhammad— may God’s peace
be upon both of them—confirmed the prophesies about Prophet Muhammad
(e) in the Torah. In Deuteronomy 18:18 & 19, it is written that the
Lord said to Moses, “I will raise up for them a prophet like you from
among their brethren[67]; and I will put my words in his mouth[68],
and he shall speak to them all that I command him. 19And whoever will
not give heed to my words which he shall speak in my name[69], I
myself will require it of him.” In Isaiah 42, Isaiah prophesies about
a chosen “Servant of the Lord” whose prophetic mission would be to all
mankind, unlike the Hebrew prophets whose missions were limited to
Israel. “1 Behold my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen, in whom my
soul delights; I have put my Spirit upon him, he will bring forth
justice to the nations... 4He will not fail or be discouraged till he
has established justice in the earth; and the coastlands wait for his
law...11Let the desert and its cities lift up their voice, the
villages that Kedar inhabits.” This particular servant of the Lord is
the only one identified with Kedar, [70] the Arabs.[71]
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[1] See also, John 4:34, 5:30, 7:16 & 28, 11:42, 13:16, 14:24.
[2] Jesus here rejects being called ‘perfectly good’, because
perfection belongs only to God. He was ‘good’, but, being the “Son of
man”(Mat. 19:29)—as he liked to call himself—he was capable of error.
[3] It should be noted that, in spite of the Qur’aanic warnings and
other statements of Prophet Muhammad himself, some Muslims have
elevated him to semi-divine status by directing their prayers to or
through him.
[4] The Biblical story of Jesus turning water into wine (John 2:1-10)
is conspicuously absent from the Qur’aan.
[5] See also, Hosea 1:10, of the King James Version.
[6] In the Revised Standard Version, it states: “And I will make him
the first-born, the highest of the kings of the earth.” See also
Jeremiah 31:9, “...for I am a father to Israel and Ephraim is my first-
born.”
[7] See also, Job 2:1 and 38:4-7. Other references to sons of God can
also be found in Genesis 6:2, Deuteronomy 14:1 and Hosea 1:10.
[8] Luke 3:38.
[9] The term “begotten” in Old English meant ‘to be fathered by’ and
it was used to distinguish between Jesus, who was supposed to be the
literal son of God, from the figurative use of the term ‘son’ for
God’s “created sons”.
[10] In the New Testament Book of Acts, there are several outlines of
speeches of the early disciples of Jesus, speeches which date from the
year 33 CE, almost forty years before the Four Gospels were written.
In one of these discourses, Jesus is referred to specifically as andra
apo tou theou: “a man from God.” (Acts 2:22). Not once do these early
confessions of faith use the expression wios tou theou: “Son of God”,
but they do speak several times of Jesus as God’s servant and prophet
(Acts 3:13, 22, 23, 26). The significance of these speeches is that
they accurately reflect the original belief and terminology of the
disciples, before the belief and terminology were evolved under the
influence of Roman religion and Greek philosophy. They reflect a
tradition which is older than that used by the Four Gospels, in which
Jesus is not invested with godship or divine sonship. (Bible Studies
From a Muslim Perspective, p. 12).
[11] See Acts 14:11-13. In the city of Lystra (Turkey), Paul and
Barnabas preached, and the pagan peoples claimed that they were gods
incarnate. They called Barnabas the Roman god Zeus, and Paul the
Roman god Hermes.
[12] Bible Studies from a Muslim Perspective, p. 15.
[13] Matthew 5:9.
[14] Journal of Theological Studies, vol. 39 and Theology, vol. 91,
no. 741.
[15] Jesus is quoting Psalms 82:6 “I have said, ‘Ye are gods: and all
of you are the children of the Most High.’ ”
[16] John 10:34.
[17] See also John 17:11.
[18] See also, Matthew 2:8.
[19] See also Matthew 28:9, “And behold, Jesus met them and said,
‘Hail!’ And they came up and took hold of his feet and worshipped
him.”
[20] See, for example, I Samuel 25:23, “When Abigail saw David, she
made haste, and alighted from the ass, and fell before David on her
face, and bowed to the ground.”
[21] Gospel Light, (1936 ed.), p. 353, quoted in Jesus, p. 21.
[22] The Gospel of John differs so radically from the other three
Gospels (the Synoptic Gospels) that its authenticity is in doubt. For
example:
The Synoptic Gospels
The Gospel of John
Jesus’ public ministry lasts one year
Jesus’ public ministry lasts for three years
Jesus speaks in brief one-liners and parables
Jesus speaks in lengthy philosophic discourses
Jesus has little to say about himself
Jesus reflects extensively on his mission and his person
Casting out money changers from the temple is the last event of his
earthly mission
Casting out money changers from the temple is the first incident of
his mission
Jesus defends the causes of the poor and the oppressed
Jesus has little or nothing to say about the poor and oppressed
Jesus is an exorcist
Jesus performs no exorcisms
Jesus is crucified on 15 Nisan
Jesus is crucified on 14 Nisan, the day of the Jewish passover
sacrifice
[23] The Five Gospels, p. 10.
[24] Its plural is logoi and it also means “reason” or “plan”.
[25] The concept defined by the term logos is also found in Indian,
Egyptian, and Persian philosophical and theological systems. (The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 7, p. 440).
[26] Stoics were philosophers who followed the teacings of the thinker
Zeno of Citicum (4th-3rd century BC).
[27] They called the logos providence, nature, god, and the soul of
the universe.
[28] According to Philo and the Middle Platonists, philosophers who
interpreted in religious terms the teachings of the 4th-century-BC
Greek master philosopher Plato, the logos was both immanent in the
world and at the same time the transcendent divine mind. (The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 7, p. 440).
[29] The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 9, p. 386.
[30] Ibid., vol. 7, p. 440.
[31] Christ in Islam, pp.40-1.
[32] This is according to the King James Version and the Authorized
Version. In the Revised Standard Version, the translation of this
verse is rendered, “And the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I make you as
God to Pharaoh; and Aaron your brother shall be your prophet.”
[33] The Myth-maker, p. 172.
[34] Seventy years later a Christian Church was reconstituted in
Jerusalem, after the city had been devastated by the Romans for a
second time and rebuilt as a Gentile city called Aelia Capitolina.
This new Christian Church had no continuity with the early ‘Jerusalem
Church’ led by James. Its members were Gentiles, as Eusebius
testifies, and its doctrines were those of Pauline Christianity.
(Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, III. v. 2-3, quoted in The Myth-
maker, p. 174).
[35] The Myth-maker, p. 175.
[36] The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 4, p. 344.
[37] Ibid., vol. 4, p. 344.
[38] Also known as Dynamic or Adoptionist Monarchianism.
[39] The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 8, p. 244.
[40] The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 9, p. 208.
[41] Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 556-7.
[42] The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 1, pp. 549-50.
[43] The Myth of God Incarnate, p. ix.
[44] The Metaphor of God Incarnate, pp. 27-8.
[45] Jesus and the Living Past, p. 39.
[46] The Origin of Christology, p. 136.
[47] Christology in the Making, p. 60.
[48] The Incarnation, p. 74.
[49] The Economist, April 1, 1989, vol. 311, no. 7596, p. 19.
[50] King James Version and The Authorized Version.
[51] The Purpose of Creation, pp. 42-3.
[52] Literally “we”, known as the “royal we” or the “majestic we”,
refers to Allaah.
[53] Called Saint Mary, she became an object of veneration in the
Christian Church since the apostolic age. She was given the title
theotokos, meaning “God-bearer” or “mother of God” in the 3rd or 4th
century. Popular devotion to Mary—in the form of feasts, devotional
services, and the rosary—has played a tremendously important role in
the lives of Roman Catholics and the Orthodox. (The New Encyclopaedia
Britannica, vol. 7. pp. 897-8 and vol. 16, pp. 278-9).
[54] The angels, Michael, Gabriel and Raphael were made saints and the
religious celebration known as Michaelmas (called, “the Feast of St.
Michael and All Saints” by the Anglicans) was dedicated to them on the
29th of September by the Western churches, and 8th of November by the
Eastern Orthodox Church. The cult of St. Michael began in the Eastern
Church in the 4th century CE. Because of St. Michael’s traditional
position as leader of the heavenly armies, veneration of all angels
was eventually incorporated into his cult. (The New Encyclopaedia
Britannica, vol. 8, p. 95). He became the patron saint of soldiers.
[55] The World Book Encyclopedia, vol. 1, p. 509.
[56] The World Book Encyclopedia, vol. 11, p. 146.
[57] Ibid., vol. 3, p. 417.
[58] Sunan Abu Dawud, vol. 1, p. 387, no. 1474.
[59] The Iconoclastic Controversy was a dispute over the use of
religious images (icons) in the Byzantine Empire during the 8th and
9th centuries. The Iconoclasts (those who rejected images) objected to
icon worship for several reasons, including the Old Testament
prohibition against images in the Ten Commandments (Ex. 20:4) and the
possibility of idolatry. The defenders of icon worship insisted on the
symbolic nature of images and on the dignity of created matter.
In the early church, the making and veneration of
portraits of Christ and the saints were consistently opposed. The use
of icons, nevertheless, steadily gained in popularity, especially in
the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. Toward the end of the 6th
century CE and in the 7th, icons became the object of an officially
encouraged cult, often implying a superstitious belief in their
animation. Opposition to such practices became particularly strong in
Asia Minor. In 726, the Byzantine emperor Leo III took a public stand
against icons and by 730 their use was officially prohibited. This led
to the persecution of icon worshippers that reached great severity in
the reign of Leo’s successor, Constantine V (741-775 CE).
In 787, however, the empress Irene convoked the
seventh ecumenical council at Nicaea, at which Iconoclasm was
condemned and the use of images was reestablished. The Iconoclasts
regained power in 814 after Leo V’s accession, and the use of icons
was again forbidden at a council (815 CE). The second Iconoclast
period ended with the death of the emperor Theophilus in 842. In 843
his widow finally restored icon veneration, an event still celebrated
in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the Feast of Orthodoxy. (The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 6, p. 237)
[60] “Ahmad” like “Muhammad” is a derivative from the Arabic root hamd
meaning “praise; thanks”. Prophet Muhammad (e) was also known by this
name.
[61] The Greek word paraclete is translated as “Comforter” in the King
James Version, and as “Advocate” and “Helper” in other translations.
Parakletos means one who pleads the cause of another, one who counsels
or advises another from deep concern for the other’s welfare. (Beacon
Bible Commentary, vol. 7, p. 168).
[62] See John 14:26, “But the Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the
Father will send in my name, he will teach you all things...”
However, in 1st John 4:1, the term “Spirit” is used to refer to a
prophet, “Beloved, believe not every spirit, but try the spirits
whether they are of God; because many false prophets are gone out into
the world.”
[63] In English, “another” may mean “one more of the same kind” or
“one more of a different kind.” The Greek text of the New Testament
uses the word allon, which is the masculine accusative form of allos:
“another of the same kind”. The Greek word for “another of a
different kind” is heteros, but the New Testament does not use this
word in John 14:16. (Jesus, a Prophet of Islam, pp. 15-6).
[64] John the Baptist was filled with the Holy Spirit while in his
mother’s womb (Luke 1:15); Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit
(Luke 1:41); John’s father, Zacharias, was also filled with the Holy
Spirit (Luke:1:67).
[65] The Holy Spirit was on Simeon (Luke 2:26) and it descended in the
shape of a dove on Jesus (Luke 3:22).
[66] Jesus, A Prophet of Islam, p. 13.
[67] The brethren of the Jews—who are themselves descendants of
Abraham’s son Isaac—are the Arabs, descendants of Isaac’s brother
Ishmael.
[68] The Qur’aan literally means “the recital”. Prophet Muhammad (e)
taught that the Qur’aan was the words of God. His own explanations and
instructions are referred to as hadeeth.
[69] Each of the 114 chapters of the Qur’aan begins with the prayer:
“In the name of Allaah, the Beneficient, the Most Merciful,” except
one, chapter 9.
[70] Ishmael’s descendants came to be known as Arabs, a term which, in
Hebrew, meant those who inhabited the ‘arabah or desert (Dictionary of
the Bible, p. 47). The most prominently mentioned of Ishmael’s twelve
sons is Qaydar (Kedar in Hebrew). In some Bible verses Qaydar is
synonymous with Arabs in general (Jeremiah 2:10; Ezekiel 27:21; Isaiah
60:7; Song of Solomon 1:5).
[71] Jesus, A Prophet of Islam, p. 11.
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